Remembering Their Names
An Exploration of the Growing Epidemic of Wrongful Imprisonment of Journalists
by Brianna Bohling-Hall
Abstract:
This research note is about arrested, detained, or imprisoned journalists around the world as documented in major databases. In it, I examine the demographics and career-related categories of the journalists, followed by an examination of the countries with the highest number of arrests. I also elaborate on the different reasons that journalists have been imprisoned, cases in which a journalist has not been given a trial, human rights abuses that have been committed against them, and how wrongful imprisonment is becoming a growing threat to journalists in the modern world. Of note, it should be known that even during an armed conflict, International Humanitarian Law considers “directing attacks against journalists” a grave violation, including acts that deliberately target journalists or media facilities.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, an organization that monitors worldwide journalist arrests and fatalities, 2,232 journalists and media workers have been wrongfully imprisoned since the database was founded in 1992.
The statistics for 2024 revealed higher numbers of journalist arrests than ever before given the ongoing war between Israel and Palestine and the growing conflicts with neighboring countries in the region. Most journalists who have been arrested during the Israel-Hamas War were detained for apparent “anti-state” sentiment, which is a common reason for arrest in various countries.
Of the 2,232 wrongfully imprisoned, 1,320 were also charged with anti-state sentiment, with a large portion of arrests providing no explanation into what exactly the journalist did wrong. Other reasons for arrests include censorship violations, defamation, ethnic and/or religious insult, false news, retaliatory news, and arrests in which no charges were disclosed.
The database does not include journalists who have repeatedly been imprisoned and released but does include journalists who have been released after lengthy sentences. A majority of the journalists and media workers in the Committee to Protect Journalists’ database are people who are currently in prison in their respective countries, with many having their sentences continuously extended without explanation.
This research paper will examine the demographic and career-related categories of the journalists, followed by an examination of the countries with the highest number of arrests. I will then further elaborate on the different reasons that journalists have been imprisoned, cases in which a journalist has not been given a trial, human rights abuses that have been committed against them, and how wrongful imprisonment is becoming a growing threat to journalists in the modern world.
The Committee to Protect Journalists’ database updates at midnight on December 1 of each year, so the demographics and career-related categories will likely change after this research paper has been completed.
The data provided has been peer-reviewed and fact-checked, and is separated into the following sections: gender identity, whether they were employed by a news outlet or worked in freelance, what their specific job was, what they usually covered, what medium they worked in, and what country they were imprisoned in.
From 1992 to 2023, of the 2,232 imprisoned, 1,913 were male while 277 were female. Most of the female journalists were arrested while working in Turkey and Iran, with almost all being charged with anti-state sentiment in those countries. Meanwhile, a majority of the male journalists were arrested in Egypt, Turkey, China, Ethiopia and Iran, with most also being charged with anti-state sentiment, but with no charges disclosed also being a frequent reason.
The prevalence of male journalists over female is not abnormal given that many countries provide more journalistic opportunities to men, though female journalists are more likely to face physical and/or sexual abuse once imprisoned. Both male and female are likely to have their careers permanently tarnished since many countries, such as ones ruled by autocracies, forever label journalists who have been imprisoned as enemies from within.
1,354 were hired staff of newspapers or broadcast companies, while 537 worked freelance. 2,161 worked within their country of origin and were imprisoned there, while 71 were imprisoned in other countries.
1,190 were reporters on various subjects; 682 were Internet reporters; 589 were editors; 533 were print reporters; 336 were publishers and/or owners of a journalism company; 320 were columnists and/or commentators; 192 were broadcast reporters; 121 were photographers; 87 were camera operators (otherwise known as cameramen); 44 were producers; 15 were documentary filmmakers; another 15 were technicians; and 8 had roles that are unknown.
At the time of their arrests, 1,559 were covering politics; 775 were covering human rights; 443 were reporting on corruption; 435 were reporting on culture; 229 were covering war; 218 were covering business; 205 were covering crime; 102 were covering sports; and 49 were covering subjects that have not been revealed.
In terms of mediums, 1,154 worked via print media; 1,131 released articles via the Internet; 201 reported on television; 161 worked via radio; 52 worked via documentary films; and one was not disclosed to the public.
Turkey currently has the highest number of journalist imprisonments in the world with 382, with a majority being arrested for either anti-state sentiment or for undisclosed reasons. China comes in second with 232, with most citing anti-state sentiment, followed by Iran with 218, Ethiopia with 145, Myanmar with 125, and Egypt with 105. Azerbaijan, Belarus, Cuba, Eritrea, Israel, Russia, Syria, and Vietnam also have high numbers of arrests, with almost all being for anti-state sentiment, retaliatory news, and/or undisclosed reasons.
Turkey’s journalism laws have increasingly become some of the harshest in the world after the passing of a 2022 law that would sentence journalists to up to three years in prison for spreading disinformation. Human rights groups have criticized the law for not specifying what is considered disinformation, with the law giving the government sweeping oversight of news outlets and the ability to enforce censorship.
The law has given the Turkish government control of 90% of news outlets, including those outlets’ social media accounts, making it harder for factual reporting to be released without potential government intervention.
According to The Guardian, the International Press Institute’s head of the Turkish branch said, “It criminalizes what the authorities call disinformation without defining what that actually means. A judge will decide how to define disinformation and intent, which really gives arbitrary powers to the government to criticize journalism.”
Government intervention has led to many Turkish citizens turning to independent media outlets within the past five years, which has resulted in growing distrust of Turkish journalism. Journalists who are openly critical of Turkey’s government are often stripped of their press passes and/or arrested for supposed anti-state sentiment.
Media websites are required to include ads that showcase the government in a positive light, and according to Reporters Without Borders, “Lawsuits for ‘insult’ are sometimes brought against journalists who implicate religious figures. References to domestic violence or various forms of abuse, especially when made by female journalists, can give rise to social media hate campaigns.”
Despite a majority of imprisoned Turkish journalists being male, many of the women arrested were working for female-led and/or all-female outlets, which has led to speculations of gender-based violence by the government to gendered media outlets. One example is Aysel Işik, an Internet reporter who covered human rights and politics for Jin News Agency (JINHA), an all-female agency.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, the agency was shut down and the employees, including Işik, were arrested for expressing pro-Kurdish views, though many believe they were also silenced for being an independent, women-run organization in a country with rampant gender inequality.
That problem is also prevalent in China, which follows Turkey as the country with the second highest number of wrongful arrests. According to Reporters Without Borders, China “…is the world’s largest prison for journalists, and its regime conducts a campaign of repression against journalism and the right to information worldwide.”
Similar to Turkey, the majority of journalists arrested and/or imprisoned in China are male, but are not usually targeted for their gender identity. China also struggles with terrible gender inequality, and many female journalists have faced harassment and/or assault.
Reporters Without Borders reported that every major Chinese media group is controlled by the government and is sent “a detailed notice…everyday that includes editorial guidelines and censored topics”, with the media’s main function being to spread communist propaganda.
Independent journalists are frequently subjected to government surveillance, harassment and, though less common but still prevalent, torture. Because every major news outlet is government-regulated, independent journalists are an endangered species in China.
Independent journalists can legally be locked in solitary confinement for up to six months in secret locations only known to the government; denied legal representation in potential future trials; and subjected to physical and/or mental torture. Hong Kong, which was once a stronghold of media independence and pro-democracy outlets, has been stripped bare of its press freedoms, with multiple news outlets being forcefully shuttered.
Stand News editors Chung Pui-kuen and Patrick Lam were previously arrested in 2022 for apparent sedition (an accusation not used since before Hong Kong’s reunification with China in 1997), with the Chinese government claiming that they and their company had become dangerous to national security. The reasoning for their sentences were purposely vague, which is a common theme in countries where press freedom is limited.
The other countries with the highest rates of wrongful journalist imprisonments–Iran, Ethiopia, Myanmar, and Egypt–have similar freedom of speech and press laws to Turkey and China with equally similar results for journalists.
Although each country has different laws and criminal justice systems, all of them engage in similar practices of detainment and/or imprisonment for journalists who break away from the status quo.
One common theme between all of them is the charge of anti-state sentiment, but what exactly does that mean? The definition of it varies by country; in Turkey and China, it defines a journalist who engages in anti-state sentiment as someone who reports on government issues with the intention of creating mistrust between the public and government officials.
In Iran, journalists are arrested for similar reasons but can also be detained for promoting beliefs that conflict with an extreme interpretation of Islam, which is what the central government follows. For example, many Iranian journalists have been charged with religious and/or ethnic insult for directly criticizing government officials who practice Islam in a way that harms women and minorities.
Overall, anti-state sentiment is any journalistic reporting that directly criticizes a government and/or specific governmental official with the proven or alleged purpose of sparking government distrust, but a majority of imprisoned journalists weren’t reporting with that intention.
Pui-kuen and Lam of Stand News were trying to protect the best interests of Hong Kong citizens, who largely opposed government crackdowns on protests and other forms of free speech. Işik, the reporter for JINHA, was trying to report on violence towards Kurdish people and women in general, which are concerns that many Turkish people are interested in.
Another reason hundreds of journalists have been imprisoned is for censorship violations. Every country that has the highest number of wrongful journalist imprisonments has extremely restrictive censorship laws, where journalists are only allowed to report on certain subjects or face fines, harassment, surveillance, and/or imprisonment.
Russia, for example, has laws censoring broadcast agencies who are critical of the Russian government, and often silence journalists who attempt to expose the actual number of Russian soldiers who have died in the Russia-Ukraine War.
According to the BBC, around 70,000 volunteer Russian soldiers have died, but the Russian government has gone to great lengths to both conceal that number and to claim to Russian civilians that they are winning the war. Journalists who have retaliated against Russia’s censorship of war coverage have often been fired and/or arrested, leading to a growing desert of independent journalists in Russia.
Defamation has also been a reason for journalist arrests, though the definition of it varies. In Ethiopia, journalists can be punished for supposed attacks on a religious institution’s credibility, such was the case of Ethio-Mihidar editor Getachew Worku.
Worku was reporting on suspected political corruption within the leadership of Saint Mary’s patriarchal monastery when he was accused of defaming the monastery and intentionally spreading misinformation. Jailed in 2016, Worku was originally given a sentence of one year but has still not been released. In Ethiopia, reporting on corruption within any public sphere could be interpreted as defamation.
On the contrary, in the United States, defamation can be extremely difficult to prove. Whoever accuses a journalist of defamation must prove that the report defamed them while publishing private information without their consent, identified the accuser directly in the report, and caused injury and/or fault. Because of that, very few accusers have won a case against a journalist they accused of defaming them since proving every requirement would take substantial time and resources.
False news is yet another reason that journalists have been imprisoned. Otherwise known as disinformation, numerous countries have used disinformation accusations against journalists that exposed government wrongdoings. One example is Tin Aung Kyaw, the publisher for Kanbawza Tai News in Myanmar who was imprisoned indefinitely without a sentencing or trial in 2021.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, Myanmar’s law on disinformation criminalizes, “Any attempt to cause fear, spread false news or agitate directly or indirectly a criminal offense against a government employee” or that “causes their hatred, disobedience, or disloyalty toward the military and the government.” Kyaw had been reporting on the anti-democracy coup that overtook Myanmar and the subsequent human rights abuses committed by the junta when he was accused and imprisoned.
Retaliatory news, in which a journalist is accused of committing harm against someone who originally harmed them, is one of the most complicated categories. Journalists rarely engage in public disputes and usually actively avoid hurting someone intentionally.
In Azerbaijan, journalists who promote equity and inclusion have been accused of doing the opposite when their reporting is misconstrued. Abid Gafarov, a journalist and the head of the Baku Unity Organization that advocates for drug prevention and equal treatment of veterans, was imprisoned in 2022 for supposedly insulting the very veterans he swore to protect.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, Gafarov was a prominent reporter of the Tartar case, in which, “About 400 soldiers are alleged to have been tortured or otherwise physically abused, and about 10 killed, over false claims of involvement in espionage.” He fought for veterans to be given equal rights, but was sued by seven veterans for insulting language after he accused them of accepting the Azerbaijani government’s poor treatment of them.
The veterans subsequently dropped the lawsuit, but Gafarov was still sentenced to one year in prison and has not yet been released. Both Gafarov and independent media outlets have speculated that the veterans were planted by the Azerbaijani government to arrest Gafarov for exposing the government’s potential involvement in the Tartar case, which would likely cause a political upheaval if proven true.
Finally, there are cases in which no charges were disclosed. In the majority of cases, the Committee to Protect Journalists has not been able to determine the journalists’ current whereabouts, health status, sentencing, or charges. Many of these cases involve illegal physical and mental torture, including beatings and starvation by authorities, with no knowledge of whether these journalists are still alive.
A good number of cases that involve undisclosed charges started with the sudden arrests of journalists and led to them being imprisoned without being told what laws they violated. One example is Ali Khatibzadeh, an Iranian Internet and print reporter who covered culture, human rights, and politics for the semi-independent Kurdish news website Mukrian News Agency.
Khatibzadeh was crossing the street to cover a protest over the wrongful death of Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old woman who was suspected to have been killed by Iran’s morality police over her hijab. Iranian authorities arrested and beat him before jailing him at an undisclosed location. Since his arrest in 2022, his whereabouts and status are still unknown. In Iran alone, there are dozens of similar cases.
Israel has also been known for arresting journalists without charges and imprisoning them without trial or legal representation. Since the start of the Israel-Hamas War in October of 2023, 75 Palestinian journalists have been wrongfully arrested by Israel, with 45 remaining in military-controlled prisons without sentencing.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, “Numerous journalists have been taken from Gaza to prisons and detention centers in Israel and the West Bank, where they say they have been subjected to mistreatment and torture.”
When the Committee contacted the Israel Defense Forces about the allegations, the IDF said it, “Does not arrest journalists simply for being journalists” and that it detains “individuals suspected of involvement in terrorist activity.”
According to Israel’s Ministry of Defense, terrorism is, “Violation of Israeli law or the Israeli government by force or violence; brings hatred or contempt or incitement thereof, against the Israeli government or its ministers in their official capacity; or the destruction or damaging of Israeli government property.”
The majority of journalists who were arrested were not told why they were detained, so whether they committed official acts of terrorism is unknown, but the likelihood is slim. Although Israel is a democracy, the government has a history of detaining Palestinian (and occasionally Israeli) journalists who are critical of the Israeli government and/or released information about human rights abuses committed against civilians.
Nidal Elian, Palestinian editor-in-chief of the satellite channel Al-Quds Today, was detained in October of 2024 without being told why or when he would be released. Elian had been staying in the Jabalia refugee camp with his family when he was forced to move to a school next to Kamal Adwan Hospital.
When he arrived, he and other male members of his family were arrested. His relatives have since been released, but Elian is still imprisoned without a court date or lawyer, with his wife telling the Committee that he requires specialized medical care after donating his kidney, which he is likely not receiving.
Elian’s case alone raises concerns over the growing number of journalists who are being imprisoned without a trial and/or are suffering from human rights abuse. According to the Committee, more than 66 journalists around the world are currently being held without a trial. 66 is a small number compared to 2,232 but is still extremely significant.
The majority are in anti-democracy countries such as China and Iran, where there are no legal protections for independent journalists and human rights abuses in prisons are rampant.
Human rights abuses can be difficult to define, but usually encompasses physical, psychological, and/or sexual abuse; forced starvation and dehydration; denial of healthcare and necessary medications; and prolonged solitary confinement.
According to the Prison Policy Initiative, a nonprofit organization that studies the negative impacts of solitary confinement, isolating prisoners has been known to cause or exacerbate mental illness, worsen physical health, and increase the likelihood of attempting suicide. The number of journalists in solitary confinement is unknown, but a majority are locked in prisons that don’t properly provide for them.
The Committee reported that around 30% of imprisoned journalists do not have access to adequate medical care. Many of the prisons they are housed in have unsanitary conditions, such as unfiltered water and unclean rooms, and numerous journalists have developed mental and physical health conditions due to the psychological stress placed on them. Humans are inherently social creatures, and without frequent interaction with others, their psychological health can deteriorate, which increases the chance of developing a physical ailment.
In Vietnam, where prisoners often face human rights abuses, freelance Internet reporter Huynh Thuc Vy and editor and Internet reporter Tran Huynh Duy Thuc (no relation) are both suffering from medical conditions that aren’t being treated.
Thuc has been imprisoned since 2009 for allegedly promoting anti-government propaganda on his website. Sentenced to 16 years, he has staged frequent hunger strikes to protest the prison’s poor conditions and mistreatment of prisoners while simultaneously trying to shorten his sentence to no success.
According to the Committee, the prison has cut the electricity in his cell multiple times, to the extent that he developed an eye condition from constantly being in the dark. He was denied treatment for his vision and was also banned from using hot water to cook his food. As of late 2023, his whereabouts and condition are unknown.
Meanwhile, Vy was imprisoned in 2018 for allegedly defacing the Vietnamese flag and had previously been beaten and strangled by both prison guards and fellow prisoners. One inmate attempted to kill her with no intervention from observing guards. She then developed tricuspid valve regurgitation, a serious heart condition that requires medication.
According to her family, they can’t afford her medication, and the prison hasn’t provided her with any needed medical care, leaving her especially vulnerable to diseases and physical harm. As of October 2023, her condition is also unknown.
The final prominent concern about journalists being wrongfully imprisoned is the growing rate of journalists being imprisoned in foreign countries. Of the 71 in foreign countries, the most are in Russia at 12. The majority are Crimean Tatar Ukrainian, having been arrested in Russian-occupied Crimea for violating Russian media laws, despite Crimea being in Ukraine.
Russia, which recently released American Wall Street Journal reporter Evan Gershkovich after alleged espionage, has a history of detaining journalists from foreign countries, especially from neighboring regions such as Ukraine.
Their method of arresting journalists from other countries is known as “transnational repression,” in which a government arrests a foreign journalist that is typically reporting on a story associated with that government to silence them and send a warning to the journalist’s respective country.
Russia is also notorious for violence in their prisons that often lead to wrongful deaths, such as with Ukrainian war reporter Viktoria Roshchina. Roshchina had disappeared while reporting on the Russia-Ukraine War in August of 2023 and was revealed to be imprisoned in Russia in April of 2024.
She then died in September during a prisoner exchange from unknown causes, leading the Ukrainian government to launch an investigation into her death. According to the Committee, she had been physically healthy until her imprisonment, leading to suspicions of either murder or a preventable ailment that caused her death.
Overall, the rates of journalist imprisonments and abuse are staggering. As more democracies are threatened on a global scale, more journalists are being punished for informing the public and fighting against media suppression. Even in countries considered to be historically democratic strongholds, such as the United States, journalism is becoming an increasingly dangerous profession.
According to a 2022 report from The Washington Post about growing threats within the United States, “If we don’t take corrective measures quickly to increase media literacy and slow the spread of disinformation, journalists working in the United States will become bigger targets for those who disagree with the information and perspectives we disseminate.”
Although government suppression isn’t currently a widespread concern, violence both online and offline towards journalists and media workers by fellow citizens has increased in the United States due to journalists being expected to openly promote their stories online. With the increased visibility comes a higher risk of verbal and physical threats, which has become more prominent within the last eight years.
When all the information in this paper is combined–the shocking statistics of journalist imprisonments, the growing censorship and violence, the individual stories of journalists who have suffered for doing their jobs–the future can appear harrowing.
Journalism has always been dangerous, especially during periods of heightened turmoil, but with more autocracies rising and social media making it easier than ever to target people, it is understandable that the Committee to Protect Journalists and other journalism rights groups are worried. Now, one question remains: what does all this information imply for the future of journalism as a whole?
Journalists have always faced heightened risks when reporting on potentially controversial events such as elections and the arrests of important political figures. A 2021 Forbes investigation revealed that 327 American journalists were attacked, whether that be by law enforcement or civilians, in 2020, a drastic increase from 34 in 2019.
That escalation shows a common trend where journalism becomes more dangerous during social and political upheaval, which was prominent in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the murder of George Floyd, and the presidential election.
However, the investigation also pointed out that for journalists in many other countries, those dangers are a part of their daily routine, highlighting the concerning amount of violence and suppression towards press freedom.
Journalism will likely continue to become a more hazardous profession with the rise of authoritarian governments, and that includes in democracies such as the United States, France and South Korea.
All three have recently dealt with an uptick in authoritarian behavior among current or soon-to-be government officials, and journalism is usually threatened the most under such governments. Although arrests based on press freedom are rare in those countries, threats towards specific journalists and media companies are becoming more widespread, facilitated by both governments and civilians.
There will also possibly be an increase in gender-based violence in the future. While male journalists are usually targeted for the information they are reporting on (though many have also been targeted for their race, religion and/or immigration status), female journalists are most often targeted for their gender identity.
As stated before, countries such as Turkey and Vietnam have engaged in gender-based violence towards female journalists, arresting them for reporting on issues affecting women and physically harming them with no legal repercussions.
According to a 2024 analysis by The Guardian for World Press Freedom Day, “Female journalists are at the ‘epicentre of risk’ as attacks on press freedom intensify around the world” and “…the past year has seen as escalation of smear campaigns; racist and gendered attacks; detentions; deportations; censorship; and police violence levelled at female journalists, which is leading to a ‘chilling’ silencing of women’s voices in the media landscape.”
The analysis goes on to explain that female journalists “from Poland to Bangladesh to Nigeria, Turkey, Canada and the US” are facing an uphill battle of violence and censorship that is only worsening. As more politicians with biased views towards women are elected, sexist behavior is increasingly being validated, which only endangers female journalists.
A survey from Women in Journalism’s Reach report revealed that “75% had experienced a threat to their safety and 25% said they had experienced sexual violence or harassment connected to their jobs.” Immigrant and BIPOC journalists are also facing increasing violence compared to their white colleagues in the media landscape.
Concluding Note
Overall, the epidemic of wrongful journalist imprisonments is continuing to spread around the world, including in democratic countries, with a special emphasis on targeting women. The future is uncertain for people in the journalism field, especially with the upcoming inauguration in the United States.
However, although the future is uncertain, journalists have dealt with suppression and violence before. With every major violent conflict and political event, journalists risk their wellbeing and livelihoods to inform the public and bring better opportunities to the people that they serve.
History has shown that journalism always finds a way to survive, and part of that survival is dependent on remembering the journalists who came before and the ones currently hiding or locked away. Remembering their names ensures a brighter future.
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